Environ. Firstly, that flavonoids may have helped in coping with the additional abiotic stresses resulting from a terrestrial lifestyle, in particular increased exposure to UVB, but potentially also drought and extreme temperature fluctuations (Markham, 1988; Jorgensen, 1994; Kenrick and Crane, 1997; Cockell and Knowland, 1999; Rozema etal., 2002; Ligrone etal., 2012; Mouradov and Spangenberg, 2014; Demarsy etal., 2017; Davies etal., 2018; de Vries and Archibald, 2018; Rensing, 2018). FEBS Lett. 11, e1005207. Your email address will not be published. Polyphenols in Bryophytes, in Recent Advances in Polyphenol Research. Plant J. Plant Mol. G. tuberosus can form thickened inner regions of the thallus that are presumed to store carbohydrates. (2017). Microbial Cell Fact. Arct. 164, 11911203. Desiccated Syntrichia ruralis shoots regenerate after 20 years in the herbarium. The mechanism of action of CHIL is unclear, and it may have differing activities across land plants, perhaps based on the promotion of activity of different biosynthetic enzymes through protein-protein interaction. Furthermore, bryophytes do not have true leaves while ferns have true leaves. doi: 10.1007/s00253-009-2258-3, Gasper, R., Effenberger, I., Kolesinski, P., Terlecka, B., Hofmann, E., Schaller, A. What group of fungi most resembles the mushrooms you buy in a grocery store? Flavonols are not essential for fertilization in Arabidopsis thaliana. Biol. 2023 Knowledge WOW - All Rights Reserved 113, 1486414869. UVB induces anthocyanin production in some angiosperms, but it is much less common a response than induction of flavones/flavonols. When you compare the life cycle of ferns and mosses, youll find that this environment facilitates their method of sexual reproduction, which varies considerably from that of flowering plants. Genomic sequencing, genome-scale metabolic network reconstruction, and in silico flux analysis of the grape endophytic fungus Alternaria sp. doi: 10.1105/tpc.8.6.1013. Plant Physiol. doi: 10.1080/03736687.2016.1176307, Stich, K., Eidenberger, T., Wurst, F., Forkmann, G. (1992). doi: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00189.x, Cohen, M. F., Meziane, T., Tsuchiya, M., Yamasaki, H. (2002a). The significance of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis being present in fungi for the current proposals on the evolutionary origins of flavonoid biosynthesis has yet to be addressed. What are the various classes of Pteridophytes? Antarctic moss biflavonoids show high antioxidant and ultraviolet-screening activity. Sequences relating to some of these genes are present in the genome sequences of charophyte and chlorophyte algae (Labeeuw etal., 2015; de Vries etal., 2017), but without functional assays the conclusions that can be drawn are limited. The sporophyte develops differently in the three groups. The commonality of phenylpropanoid biosynthetic genes between bryophytes and angiosperms, and the conserved functions of flavonoids in assisting in tolerance to stresses such as UVB and pathogen attack, support the proposal that the pathway arose before the last common ancestor of these land plant groups, relatively early during the process of land colonization. Acad. Plant Physiol. Sci. J. Phycol. This may include steps in bibenzyl biosynthesis, a group of liverwort phenylpropanoid compounds related to plant defense that includes cannabinoid-like structures (Hussain etal., 2018). What are the 4 classes of pteridophytes give examples? Plant Physiol. (2019) demonstrated that the production of auronidin in Marchantia greatly enhanced resistance to Phytophthora palmivora infection, with a lack of hyphae penetration into the highly pigmented regions of plants. Bioessays 16, 123132. Trends Plant Sci. The principal absorption maxima from 290 to 330 nm makes HCAs particularly effective UVB screening compounds, and would be a more carbon-efficient screen than the flavonoids. Phytochem. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 46, 117130. The life cycle of A.agrestis starts with germination of the haploid spores (1) which develop into an irregularly shaped thallus (2).A.agrestis is monoicous, with both male and female reproductive organs . doi: 10.1111/nph.14975, de Vries, J., de Vries, S., Slamovits, C. H., Rose, L. E., Archibald, J. M. (2017). Conifers reproduce through pollination of ovulate cones that eventually develop seeds. ferns and fern allies lignophytes Characteristics of Bryophytes: Bryophytes are small or short plants such as mosses and liverworts. Donec aliquet. They likewise repeat without seeds. doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00085, Waterman, M. J., Bramley-Alves, J., Miller, R. E., Keller, P. A., Robinson, S. A. (2018b). 2. doi: 10.4137/JEN.S25096, Elumalai, P., Liu, H. L. (2011). The cell wall-bound nature of auronidins and sphagnorubins complicates the theory of an antioxidant or signaling role for red flavonoids. The alternative proposal is that flavonoids arose as physiological regulators or chemical messengers. Forty of the Marchantia PPO genes (66%) occur as tandem repeats or small gene clusters (local tandemly arrayed genes; TAGs). Anthocyanidin-containing compounds occur in the periderm cell walls of the storage roots of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-2913-6_12, Martens, S., Preu, A., Matern, U. Differential distribution of flavonols and auxin has been observed accompanying stem reorientation in a gymnosperm (Ramos etal., 2016), supporting a conserved function in auxin transport within seed plants. Bot. Curr. In apogamy, a sporophyte grows into a gametophyte without fertilization occurring. Bryophytes include plants like liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. Biochem. It may provide protection of the DNA against UVB damage during a period when DNA repair mechanisms are not active, given that auronidin accumulation is induced by UVB in some Antarctic species. The pathway is thought to be specific to land plants and to have arisen during the period of land colonization around 550-470 million years ago. Biol. Like the bryophytes, ferns and fern allies are still restricted to moist habitats. Biol. It was suggested that PAL was acquired by the land plant ancestor via a horizontal gene transfer event (Emiliani etal., 2009), but genes related to PAL are present in the charophyte Klebsormidium flaccidum and could have been acquired by endosymbiotic gene transfer from cyanobacteria to algal ancestors of land plants (de Vries etal., 2017). The Marchantia genome contains an expanded R3MYB gene family (Bowman etal., 2017), but no analysis of these with regard to flavonoid biosynthesis has been published. Bryophyte Ecology. Also, a recombinantly expressed DIR from Glycyrrhiza echinata was found to possess isoflavanol dehydratase activity and carry out the final ring-closure step of the biosynthesis of the anti-microbial phytoalexin ()-pterocarpan (Uchida etal., 2017). doi: 10.3390/plants5020027, Jin, H., Cominelli, E., Bailey, P., Parr, A., Mehrtens, F., Jones, J., et al. Plant Cell 4, 253262. (2001). Plant Cell 8, 10131025. Notably, the TF families thought to regulate the phenylpropanoid pathway are much smaller in Marchantia than in flowering plants. Genetics and biochemistry of secondary metabolites in plants: an evolutionary perspective. Plants we see as ferns or horsetails are the sporophyte generation. Acad. Unless the divergence of hornworts occurred before the pathway arose, the hornwort ancestor must have acquired mutations that caused loss of the biosynthetic or regulatory capacity. Sci. Fusce dui lectus, congue vel laoreet ac, dictum vitae odio. Growth response of Sphagnum capillifolium to nighttime temperature and nutrient level: Mechanisms and implications for global change. Recorded desiccation-survival times in bryophytes. What is the major and most significant difference between bryophytes mosses and ferns pteridophytes )? Donec aliquet. Plant Physiol. (2018). (2018) for examples]. 57, 262270. Homology modeling and dynamics study of aureusidin synthase - an important enzyme in aurone biosynthesis of snapdragon flower. To clarify, 'terrestrial' means they grow on land, and nonvascular refers to their lack of food and water-conducting channels. Abiotic stress tolerance of Charophyte green algae: new challenges for Omics techniques. Although spontaneous closure to form the C-ring to produce flavanones from chalcones has been shown to occur in vitro, comparative studies on the spontaneous and enzyme catalyzed reactions suggest this is unlikely to be significant in planta (Jez and Noel, 2002). Ferns and their allies are found everywhere, and they are some of the most prevalent plants in certain ecosystems. In contrast, the PPO from Bacillus does not need a caddie protein (Sendovski etal., 2011). Hornworts produce polyphenolics, notably rosmarinic acid and lignan-like compounds (e.g., anthocerotonic acid and megacerotonic acid) (Petersen and Simmonds, 2003; Soriano etal., 2018b) (Figure 1), but there is no report of any flavonoid being found (Markham, 1988). The presence of at least 24 PKS genes in the Marchantia genome suggests potential biosynthetic diversity, and at least one gene (Mapoly0014s0122) is closely related to the anther-specific chalcone synthase-like enzymes (ASCLs) involved in the biosynthesis of sporopollenin in angiosperms (Bowman etal., 2017). Curr. 2OGDs include the FLAVANONE 2-HYDROXYLASE (F2H), FLAVANONE 3-HYDROXYLASE (F3H), FLAVONOL SYNTHASE (FLS), FLAVONE SYNTHASE I (FNSI), and ANTHOCYANIDIN SYNTHASE/LEUCOANTHOCYANIDIN DIOXYGENASE (ANS). 30, 388395. However, there are relatively large Marchantia gene families for enzymes that are often involved in specialized metabolism, such as the Cyp450, 2OGD, and UGT families. Isolation and identification of a flavone apigenin from marine red alga Acanthophora spicifera with antinociceptive and anti-Inflammatory activities. DOC Topic 10: Ferns and Fern Allies - Florida State University The development of Geothallus tuberosus, Campbell. Ferns are considered the most advanced seedless vascular plants and display characteristics commonly observed in seed plants. 57, 230256. Role of a chalcone isomerase-like protein in flavonoid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. What makes a staghorn fern different from other ferns? Donec aliquet. When compared to other varieties, Staghorn Ferns differ because they are long and wide. a group of plants in which a primitive conductive system appears. Some charophycean algae do tolerate terrestrial conditions (Karsten and Holzinger, 2014; Holzinger and Pichrtov, 2016) and can produce polyphenolics in response to abiotic stresses such as UVB, salinity, or dehydration. Monographie der Riccieen. Russ. Both are plants with primitive origins that produce spores instead of seeds. Phylogenetically, PabHLH falls within clades containing the flavonoid MBW bHLH sequences of angiosperms (within bHLH subgroup IIIf), suggesting it may be homologous to them. Comment * document.getElementById("comment").setAttribute( "id", "a8b7c0bd6280f3a7f055509b62e2991d" );document.getElementById("c08a1a06c7").setAttribute( "id", "comment" ); Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. PPO genes are found throughout land plants, as well as in bacteria, fungi, and animals, but are absent from algae. J. Agric. (Eds.) 48, 123152. The completion of a hornwort genome sequence (Szvnyi etal., 2015) and transcriptomic studies examining land plant evolution (Wickett etal., 2014; Puttick etal., 2018) may provide the data to help in resolving this question. Front. Gymnosperms: Gymnosperms are also known as conifers. Oecologia Montana 5, 1320. Phytochemistry 53, 357363. In May 2023, Frontiers adopted a new reporting platform to be Counter 5 compliant, in line with industry standards. Trends Plant Sci. (2002). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Nam lacinia pulvinar tortor nec facilisis. Write two differences between monocot and eudicot angiosperms. This suggests that the core UVB protection mechanism of UVR8-induced flavonoid production may already have been established in the last common ancestor of bryophytes and angiosperms. Vowinkel, E. (1975). Reproduction by Spores Ferns and horsetails have two free-living generations: a diploid sporophyte generation (spore-producing plant) and a haploid gametophyte generation (gamete-producing plant). Changes in phenylpropanoid and trichothecene production by Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum Sensu Stricto via exposure to flavonoids. Plant Cell 25, 30893103. And when the baby sporophyte grows up from the gametophyte, it is exposed to desiccation (drying up). Environ. Plant Physiol. Aquat. Soc Espaola Hist. Bryophytes thrive in damp, shady environments, but they can also be found in diverse and even extreme habitats, from deserts to arctic areas. Plant cell wall lignification and monolignol metabolism. Which statement is correct about pteridophytes? J. Bryol. (2016). Sci. The identification of different flavonoid groups across land plants has been conducted for many years, both to further understand the evolutionary significance of flavonoid distribution by chemotaxonomy and for the discovery of novel bioactives (Markham, 1988; Asakawa, 2017; Jiang etal., 2016; de Vries etal., 2017; Yonekura-Sakakibara etal., 2019). The presence of specialized biosynthetic or storage structures in fossils, such as possible equivalents to the terpenoid-accumulating oil bodies of extant liverworts (Labandeira and Currano, 2013), can support the presence of specialized metabolite pathways but not provide details of the specific compounds produced. What are pteridophytes give any three examples? Which of the following is not true about pteridophytes? Bryophytes grow in moist places and have no supportive tissues. DWL, tyrosine, and KFDV core motifs are underlined in black. doi: 10.1016/S1074-5521(99)89006-1, Gasparetti, C., Faccio, G., Arvas, M., Buchert, J., Saloheimo, M., Kruus, K. (2010). Front. doi: 10.1021/bi00343a003, Hughes, N. M. (2011). doi: 10.1002/9781119312994.apr0131. They were followed by liverworts (also bryophytes) and primitive vascular plantsthe pterophytesfrom which modern . 9, 1042. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01042, Brunetti, C., Sebastiani, F., Tattini, M. (2019). Flavonoids have been demonstrated to assist in tolerance to both abiotic and biotic stresses, and their production can be induced by cold, UV-B light (UVB) or strong white light, nutrient deprivation, desiccation, salinity, metal toxicity, and pest and pathogen attack (Agati and Tattini, 2010; Cheynier etal., 2013; Landi etal., 2015; Davies etal., 2018). 153, 11231134. Plant Sci. What is the use of Tecomella undulata bark? However, because they lack of lignin and other resistant structures, bryophyte fossil formation is improbable and the . Although the concentrations of flavonoid compounds reported in most examples are extremely low compared with those commonly found in land plants (ng gDW1 amounts compared with mg gDW1), these reports mean that the presence of a biosynthetic pathway to flavonoids in algae cannot be ruled out. N. Z. J. Bot. Bryophyte - Definition, Characteristics, Life Cycle and Examples Besides AUS, PPOs have been implicated in tyrosine or phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathways of walnut (Araji etal., 2014) and creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) (Cho etal., 2003). Chem. Nutrient depletion as a key factor for manipulating gene expression and product formation in different branches of the flavonoid pathway. This suggestion could be extended to include protection against herbivory. Bot. Studies with Arabidopsis have shown that these secondary activities can also be present in planta, as ANS can contribute to (relatively weak) flavonol biosynthesis in the Arabidopsis fls-1 mutant (Martens etal., 2010). B. W. (1836). Bryophytes have a set of common features that help to distinguish them from all other land plants. Plant Sci. doi: 10.1105/tpc.114.134643, El Shoubaky, G. A., Abdel-Daim, M. M., Mansour, M. H., Salem, E. A. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.07.020. The key difference between bryophytes and ferns is that the bryophytes are nonvascular plants while ferns are vascular plants. The PabHLH gene of the liverwort P. appendiculatum is a probable activator of bibenzyl biosynthesis (Wu etal., 2018). (2019). Analysis of the auxin signaling pathway of Marchantia has identified an orthologue of TOPLESS, which in angiosperms interacts with the EAR motif to mediate transcriptional repression (Flores-Sandoval etal., 2015). The SG4 R2R3MYBs are characterized by the presence of an ethylene response factor (ERF)-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) motif (LxLxL or DLNxxP) or a TLLLFR motif in the C terminus that mediates transcriptional repression (Chen etal., 2019a; Chen etal., 2019b; Ma and Constabel, 2019). J. Mol. The seasonal growth pattern of Sphagnum magellanicum Brid. Advance of the negative regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis by MYB transcription factors. The production of cell wall-localized phenolics as part of the UVB screening capacity may be a common feature of bryophytes, including for the flavonoid-lacking hornworts (Monforte etal., 2018; Soriano etal., 2018c). 28, 733745. Biochem. Anthocyanins in leaves and other vegetative organs: An introduction. doi: 10.1104/pp.110.154658, Wu, Y. F., Zhao, Y., Liu, X. Y., Gao, S., Cheng, A. X., Lou, H. X. Ellis, B. E., Kuroki, G. W., Stafford, H. A. Biochem. The interrelationships of land plants and the nature of the ancestral embryophyte. New Phytol. (2006). Mosses and ferns are found in moist and shady places because both require the presence of water for sexual reproduction. Both are plants with primitive origins that produce spores instead of seeds. The exception to this is the hornworts, which lack flavonoids. doi: 10.1038/378241b0, Han, X. J., Wu, Y. F., Gao, S., Yu, H. N., Xu, R. X., Lou, H. X., et al. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00305, Newsham, K. K., Geissler, P. A., Nicolson, M. J., Peat, H. J., Lewis-Smith, R. I. Bryophytes: Bryophytes are plants such as mosses. Cold Spring Harb. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. 154, 134142. Why does pteridophytes considered as the first successful terrestrial plant? J. Biol. (2000). Furthermore, they are seedless plants. The origin and evolution of plant flavonoid metabolism. Corresponding evolutionary divergence of specialized metabolic pathways would be expected to underpin the occurrence of the differing compound types. doi: 10.1159/000233506, Soriano, G., Cloix, C., Heilmann, M., Nunez-Olivera, E., Martinez-Abaigar, J., Jenkins, G. I. Ferns form large leaves and branching roots. Integrated metabolite and transcript profiling identify a biosynthetic mechanism for hispidol in Medicago truncatula cell cultures. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Do repressor TFs modify pathway regulation? The flavonoid pathway is a core component enabling land plants to interact with their environment. They may reproduce both sexually and vegetatively. Biol. As they are not flowering plants, bryophytes reproduce by spores instead of seeds.Feb 22, 2021. Nam lacinia pulvinar tortor nec facilisis. 10, 2129. 18, 13. doi: 10.1186/s12934-019-1063-7, Ma, D., Constabel, C. P. (2019). doi: 10.1111/nph.15973, Puttick, M. N., Morris, J. L., Williams, T. A., Cox, C. J., Edwards, D., Kenrick, P., et al. 120, 615622. The role of DIRs in determining stereospecificity has been best described in the formation of lignans, a class of 8-8 linked C6C3 phenylpropanoid dimers involved in pathogen resistance, for example in the production of (+)- or ()-pinoresinol compounds in flax (Linum usitatissimum) and pea (Pisum sativum) (Kim etal., 2015; Corbin etal., 2018). Trends Plant Sci. The origin and early evolution of plants on land. Kny (1890) and Cesares Gil (1902) noted that M. polymorpha or Reboulia hemisphaerica, respectively, grown in sunny locations produced more pigment than those growing in shady environments. Plant Sci. Besides having structural roles these polymers may also contribute to physical barriers to pathogens (Zhao and Dixon, 2014). Plant Physiol. Thus, how flavonoid biosynthesis occurs in mosses is an open question. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2017.06.017, Bowman, J. L., Araki, T., Kohchi, T. (2016). m ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. The key difference between bryophytes and ferns is that the bryophytes are nonvascular plants while ferns are vascular plants. The occurrence and function of CHI and CHIL in basal plants is proving to be an interesting question. Plant Sci. Ferns: the missing link in shoot evolution and development Nam lacinia pulvinar tortor nec facilisis. J. Photochem. euphyllophytes plants with true leaves monilophytes split of euphyllophytes. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1323926111, Wolf, L., Rizzini, L., Stracke, R., Ulm, R., Rensing, S. A. The ecological significance of organochemical compounds in Sphagnum. Harborne, J. Flavone production is reduced in Mphy5 mutants, so it is possible that HY5 is a direct activator of flavonoid biosynthetic genes as in Arabidopsis, but there may also be HY5-independent activation pathways for flavone production (Kondou etal., 2019). Bot. Biology. doi: 10.1104/pp.96.3.680, Stark, L. R., Greenwood, J. L., Brinda, J. C. (2017). doi: 10.1007/978-3-7091-1084-3, Asakawa, Y. Environ. doi: 10.1111/nph.14852, Cheynier, V., Comte, G., Davies, K. M., Lattanzio, V., Martens, S. (2013). Reactive oxygen species, oxidative signaling and the regulation of photosynthesis. The deduced protein products of these genes possess predicted signal peptides (SignalP 5.0, http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/SignalP/), indicative of secretion to the vacuole or, extracellularly, to the cell wall. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005207, Foyer, C. H. (2018). doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3040.2002.00917.x, Pollastri, S., Tattini, M. (2011). The Flavonoids: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Applications. Comparison of Arabidopsis mutants at different biosynthetic steps found sinapate esters have a protective role comparable to, or perhaps more important than, that of flavonols (Li etal., 1993; Landry etal., 1995). MYB repressors as regulators of phenylpropanoid metabolism in plants. doi: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.05.009, Cho, M. H., Moinuddin, S. G., Helms, G. L., Hishiyama, S., Eichinger, D., Davin, L. B., et al. Which are important steps in evolution of pteridophytes? Why pteridophytes are successful land plants? Flavonols: old compounds for old roles. doi: 10.1007/s11101-015-9426-0, Berland, H., Albert, N. W., Stavland, A., Jordheim, M., McGhie, T. M., Zhou, Y., et al. 166, 614631. Of the 37 genes with classical DIR structure in flax, 15 paralogous gene pairs were identified. Notable among these are the betacyanins, which are produced in the many species of the core Caryophyllales that do not produce anthocyanins (Polturak and Aharoni, 2019), and the phenolic pigments of algae. What time is best to visit San Diego Zoo. The Evolution of Flavonoid Biosynthesis: A Bryophyte Perspective In Arabidopsis, the HCA compounds sinapate esters have an important role in UVB-screening. Planta 242, 519537. Mol. Ancient origin of the biosynthesis of lignin precursors. Genetic analysis of the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha reveals that R2R3MYB activation of flavonoid production in response to abiotic stress is an ancient character in land plants. 37, 116. doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2008.12.007, Pichersky, E., Gang, D. R. (2000). Aureusidin synthase: a polyphenol oxidase homolog responsible for flower coloration. Bot. Additionally, as mentioned earlier, there is also evidence supporting flavonoid roles as signaling molecules (Taylor and Grotewold, 2005; Agati and Tattini, 2010; Agati etal., 2012; Foyer, 2018). The Ferns and Their Allies - CliffsNotes Structure/function analysis of a Type III polyketide synthase in the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus reveals a biochemical pathway in phlorotannin monomer biosynthesis. Definition of the category tree fern bluebells Vascular plants ( tracheophytes) differ from the nonvascular bryophytes in that they possess specialized supporting and water-conducting tissue, called xylem, and food-conducting tissue, called phloem. Natl. Altered developmental traits in such plants include dwarfing, loss of pollen fertility and altered root development and gravitropic responses (Van der Meer etal., 1992; Napoli etal., 1999; Brown etal., 2001; Dare and Hellens, 2013; Maloney etal., 2014; Muhlemann etal., 2018). Int. 267, 2010020107. A., Grattapaglia, D., Tuskan, G. A., Hellsten, U., Hayes, R. D., Grimwood, J., et al. Figure 4 Illustrations of some of the variations in form of the purple-pigmented ventral scales of thalloid liverworts. T.J. Kop. Fusce dui lectus, congue vel laoreet ac, dictum vitae odio. Aurones have been found across land plant groups, but with sporadic occurrence. Metabolomics reveals comprehensive reprogramming involving two independent metabolic responses of Arabidopsis to UV-B light. Earth Planet. doi: 10.1016/S1360-1385(00)01741-6, Pietrini, F., Iannelli, M. A., Massacci, A. (2012). 166, 11121117. In moist, shady locations, you may find mosses and ferns cohabiting with one another. 588, 23072314. Yoshida, K., Cheynier, V., Quideau, S., Wiley-Blackwell: Oxford, UK. 8, e25033. Difference between Bryophytes and Pteridophytes | EasyBiologyClass
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